A Ninth Circuit opinion in United States v. Harrell examines a question of first impression for the 9th Circuit: "whether the 'relating to' parentheticals within 18 U.S.C. s 1028A(c) limit the statute's otherwise clear articulation of which offenses may serve as predicates for application of s 1028(a)." Among the charges against Harrell were a charge of aggravated identity theft. The court held that "'relating to'parentheticals do not limit the statute's effect, but serve simply as descriptive aids."  Finding the plain text clear, the court did not "trudge through the deep mud of legislative history." Neither did the court use the rule of lenity.

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